Collective Action for Market Access and Productivity in Agriculture: The Case of Rice Farmers in Tanzania
Keywords:
collective action, producer organizations, market access, agricultural productivity, rice farmingAbstract
Producer organizations (POs) are widely promoted as a mechanism for improving smallholder productivity and market access, yet evidence on the factors associated with their long-term sustainability in sub-Saharan Africa remains limited. This cross-sectional, convergent mixed-methods study examined rice POs in seven irrigation schemes in Iringa District, Tanzania. A structured survey was administered to 210 farmers, with 30 randomly selected from the membership roster of each of the seven purposively selected POs, complemented by 10 key informant interviews and seven focus group discussions. Quantitative analyses comprised ordinary least squares and logistic regression with cluster-robust standard errors to account for clustering of farmers within schemes, and a chi-square test of association. Perceived irrigation infrastructure quality was positively associated with rice yield (B = 1.42 tons/ha per scale point; cluster-robust 95% CI [0.83, 2.00]), although this association received only qualified support under the most conservative test available with seven clusters (wild-cluster bootstrap p = .078). Sustained collective engagement, a composite indicator that includes marketing paddy through the PO, was associated with a mean price that was 39,303 TZS higher per 100-kg bag (95% CI [20,820, 53,408]; bootstrap p = .016). Perceived leadership quality was associated with sustained collective engagement (OR = 4.19; cluster-robust 95% CI [1.72, 10.23]), and scheme-level storage utilization was associated with credit access (χ²(2, N = 210) = 47.29, p < .001, Cramér’s V = .48). Qualitative findings revealed mistrust rooted in delayed payments, weak accountability, gendered exclusion, and insecure tenure. Recommendations, including expanded warehouse receipt systems and leadership development, are proposed for piloting and evaluation.
References
Abebaw, D., & Haile, M. G. (2013). The impact of cooperatives on agricultural technology adoption: Empirical evidence from Ethiopia. Food Policy, 38, 82–91. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2012.10.003
Agarwal, B. (2001). Participatory exclusions, community forestry, and gender: An analysis for South Asia and a conceptual framework. World Development, 29(10), 1623–1648. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(01)00066-3
Barham, J., & Chitemi, C. (2009). Collective action initiatives to improve marketing performance: Lessons from farmer groups in Tanzania. Food Policy, 34(1), 53–59. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.002
Bernard, T., & Spielman, D. J. (2009). Reaching the rural poor through rural producer organizations? A study of agricultural marketing cooperatives in Ethiopia. Food Policy, 34(1), 60–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.08.001
Braun, V., & Clarke, V. (2006). Using thematic analysis in psychology. Qualitative Research in Psychology, 3(2), 77–101. https://doi.org/10.1191/1478088706qp063oa
Burney, J. A., & Naylor, R. L. (2012). Smallholder irrigation as a poverty alleviation tool in sub-Saharan Africa. World Development, 40(1), 110–123. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.05.007
Cameron, A. C., Gelbach, J. B., & Miller, D. L. (2008). Bootstrap-based improvements for inference with clustered errors. Review of Economics and Statistics, 90(3), 414–427. https://doi.org/10.1162/rest.90.3.414
Cameron, A. C., & Miller, D. L. (2015). A practitioner’s guide to cluster-robust inference. Journal of Human Resources, 50(2), 317–372. https://doi.org/10.3368/jhr.50.2.317
Carletto, C., Jolliffe, D., & Banerjee, R. (2015). From tragedy to renaissance: Improving agricultural data for better policies. Journal of Development Studies, 51(2), 133–148. https://doi.org/10.1080/00220388.2014.968140
Christoplos, I. (2010). Mobilizing the potential of rural and agricultural extension. Natural Resources Forum, 34(3), 190–200. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1477-8947.2010.01320.x
Coulter, J., & Onumah, G. (2002). The role of warehouse receipt systems in enhanced commodity marketing and rural livelihoods in Africa. Food Policy, 27(4), 319–337. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0306-9192(02)00018-0
Creswell, J. W., & Plano Clark, V. L. (2017). Designing and conducting mixed methods research (3rd ed.). Sage.
FAO. (2017). The future of food and agriculture: Trends and challenges. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/i6583e/i6583e.pdf
Fischer, E., & Qaim, M. (2012a). Linking smallholders to markets: Determinants and impacts of farmer collective action in Kenya. World Development, 40(6), 1255–1268. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2011.11.018
Fischer, E., & Qaim, M. (2012b). Gender, agricultural commercialization, and collective action in Kenya. Food Security, 4(3), 441–453. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-012-0199-7
Jayne, T. S., Mather, D., & Mghenyi, E. (2010). Principal challenges confronting smallholder agriculture in sub-Saharan Africa. World Development, 38(10), 1384–1398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2010.06.002
Kaganzi, E., Ferris, S., Barham, J., Abenakyo, A., Sanginga, P., & Njuki, J. (2009). Sustaining linkages to high value markets through collective action in Uganda. Food Policy, 34(1), 23–30. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.004
Markelova, H., Meinzen-Dick, R., Hellin, J., & Dohrn, S. (2009). Collective action for smallholder market access. Food Policy, 34(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodpol.2008.10.001
Markelova, H., & Mwangi, E. (2010). Collective action for smallholder market access: Evidence and implications for Africa. Review of Policy Research, 27(5), 621–640. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1541-1338.2010.00462.x
Mdemu, M. V., Mziray, N., Bjornlund, H., & Kashaigili, J. J. (2017). Barriers to and opportunities for improving productivity and profitability of the Kiwere and Magozi irrigation schemes in Tanzania. International Journal of Water Resources Development, 33(5), 725–739. https://doi.org/10.1080/07900627.2016.1188267
Meinzen-Dick, R., & Zwarteveen, M. (1998). Gendered participation in water management: Issues and illustrations from water users’ associations in South Asia. Agriculture and Human Values, 15(4), 337–345. https://doi.org/10.1023/A:1007533018254
Morton, J. F. (2007). The impact of climate change on smallholder and subsistence agriculture. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(50), 19680–19685. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0701855104
Nakawuka, P., Langan, S., Schmitter, P., & Barron, J. (2018). A review of trends, constraints and opportunities of smallholder irrigation in East Africa. Global Food Security, 17, 196–212. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gfs.2017.10.003
Odgaard, R. (2002). Scrambling for land in Tanzania: Processes of formalisation and legitimisation of land rights. European Journal of Development Research, 14(2), 71–88. https://doi.org/10.1080/714000434
Olson, M. (1965). The logic of collective action: Public goods and the theory of groups. Harvard University Press.
Ostrom, E. (1990). Governing the commons: The evolution of institutions for collective action. Cambridge University Press.
Podsakoff, P. M., MacKenzie, S. B., Lee, J.-Y., & Podsakoff, N. P. (2003). Common method biases in behavioral research: A critical review of the literature and recommended remedies. Journal of Applied Psychology, 88(5), 879–903. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021-9010.88.5.879
Poteete, A. R., & Ostrom, E. (2004). Heterogeneity, group size and collective action: The role of institutions in forest management. Development and Change, 35(3), 435–461. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7660.2004.00360.x
Pretty, J., & Ward, H. (2001). Social capital and the environment. World Development, 29(2), 209–227. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0305-750X(00)00098-X
Putnam, R. D. (1993). Making democracy work: Civic traditions in modern Italy. Princeton University Press.
Salifu, A., Francesconi, G. N., & Kolavalli, S. (2010). A review of collective action in rural Ghana (IFPRI Discussion Paper No. 00998). International Food Policy Research Institute. https://www.ifpri.org/publication/review-collective-action-rural-ghana
Shepherd, A. W. (2007). Approaches to linking producers to markets (Agricultural Management, Marketing and Finance Occasional Paper No. 13). Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/a1123e/a1123e00.pdf
Shiferaw, B., Hellin, J., & Muricho, G. (2011). Improving market access and agricultural productivity growth in Africa: What role for producer organizations and collective action institutions? Food Security, 3(4), 475–489. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-011-0153-0
United Republic of Tanzania. (2017). Agricultural Sector Development Programme Phase II (ASDP II). Ministry of Agriculture. https://asdp.kilimo.go.tz/
United Republic of Tanzania. (2019). National Rice Development Strategy Phase II (NRDS-II), 2019–2030. Ministry of Agriculture. https://riceforafrica.net/wp-content/uploads/2021/09/NRDS2_Tanzania_en.pdf
United Republic of Tanzania. (2022). Tanzania in figures 2022. National Bureau of Statistics. https://www.nbs.go.tz/uploads/statistics/documents/en-1705580142-2022_Tanzania_in_Figure_English.pdf
Verhofstadt, E., & Maertens, M. (2014). Smallholder cooperatives and agricultural performance in Rwanda: Do organizational differences matter? Agricultural Economics, 45(S1), 39–52. https://doi.org/10.1111/agec.12128
Wiggins, S. (2009). Can the smallholder model deliver poverty reduction and food security for a rapidly growing population in Africa? (FAC Working Paper No. 08). Future Agricultures Consortium. https://openknowledge.fao.org/bitstreams/38799c3e-cd95-42dc-8a46-5ec5356e42f0/download
Williamson, O. E. (1985). The economic institutions of capitalism. Free Press.
Wilson, R. T., & Lewis, I. (2015). The rice value chain in Tanzania: A report from the Southern Highlands Food Systems Programme. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao.org/3/a-i4831e.pdf
World Bank. (2022). Tanzania economic update: Empowering women, transforming lives. World Bank Group. https://documents1.worldbank.org/curated/en/099850002282226344/pdf/P174894034150b0080a42e081bd547a37b8.pdf
Downloads
Published
Issue
Section
License
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution–NonCommercial 4.0 International License (CC BY-NC 4.0).
